The Travels Of Marco Polo By Marco Polo (approx. 1254 - 1324) Essays

The Travels of Marco Polo by Marco Polo (approx. 1254 - 1324) The Travels of Marco Polo by Marco Polo (approx. 1254 - 1324) (as told to Rusticiano da Pisa and edited by Francis R, Gemma; originally titled A DESCRIPTION OF THE WORLD) Type of Work: Autobiographical adventure Settings Venice, Italy and overland to Eastern China (Cathay) Principal Characters Marco Polo, a young nobleman, traveling merchant and adventurer Niccolo Polo, Marco's father, also a merchant Maffeo Polo, Niccolo's brother and business partner Kublai Khan, Emperor of China, descendent of Ghenghis Khan Historical Overview Prologue: (The book contains the story of Marco Polo's life and his travels from his home in Venice, Italy across Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Asia to the court of Khan, located in the area now known as Beijing, China. Marco was much liked by the Emperor, who made him his ambassador. The explorer describes his many adventures during his 26-year absence from home. An introduction outlines the biographical events (each that he himself personally witnessed or "heard tell by persons worthy of faith"), and sets us on our way with Marco en route to China.) Two wealthy Venetian gentleman-merchants, Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, sailed eastward from Venice about 1254, leaving Niccolo's infant son, Marco, in the care of his aunt. The travelers journeyed as far as the court of the great emperor Kublai Khan, where they became highly favored. After learning a little about the exotic Catholic religion of his guests, the Khan dispatched envoys to return with them to Italy to meet with the Pope. His desire was that the Pope should lend the services of as many as a hundred scholars to come to his court and prove that the Law of Christ was "most agreeable." If they succeeded, he vowed that he and all his subjects would become Christians. The Polos sailed into Acre, Italy in April of 1269, to the news that Pope Clement had died. Then the brothers journeyed on to Venice to await the anointing of a new pope. But after several years they tired of waiting and began to make their way again to Kubtai's court, this time accompanied by young Marco. Again in Acre, after some backtracking, the three finally met up with the newly-named Pope Gregory of Piacenza. He reluctantly agreed to cooperate with the Khan's commission, but sent only two ambassadors to accompany them. However, these priests soon became discouraged. Unwilling either to endure the privations the journey would require or to sacrifice their lives in the service of pagans, both eventually turned back. Book-by-Book Summary Book I contains Marco's descriptions of his three-and-a-half year journey to Kublai's court. It is a fascinating narrative, with vivid renditions not only of geography, natural phenomena and traveling distances and conditions, but of histories, food preparation and production, trade, religious practices, and customs and oral traditions among the many tribes and civilizations they encountered. Book II tells of life in the court of Kublai Khan. The person of the Khan is admiringly detailed: "He is of a good stature, neither tall nor short, but of a middle height. He has a becoming amount of flesh, and is very shapely in all his limbs. His complexion is white and red, the eyes black and fine, the nose well formed and well set on." The Khan's palaces, his vast court, his government and armies are depicted. An account is given of a battle led by great Khan himself. The narrative reports that "when all were in battle array [one could hear] a sound arise of many instruments of various music, and of the voices of the whole of the two hosts loudly singing. For this is the custom of the Tartars.. ." Portrayals of court affairs such as the marking of the calendar, and the celebration of thousands of festivals and hunting trips, are eloquently recorded. Record-keeping was very important to the Chinese. Each household kept near the front door a list of the names of all the home's inhabitants, and the keepers of hostelries were required to record the names of all travelers and the dates of their visits. Certain chapters relate some of the wondrous inventions Marco saw while serving the Khan. He writes of such marvels as paper money, a system of express messengers, fine highway systems (remnants of which are still in place), and a "black stone" (coal) used for fuel. For all of these wonders Marco gives full credit to the "Great Khan," whom he never tires of praising for his wisdom, power, wealth and skill. Now fluent in four different languages, Marco became a valuable ambassador for the Emperor. Book 11 ends with brief descriptions of his separate missions. Book III recounts in

One Scary Night

One Scary Night Free Online Research Papers One warm, dark, summer night, my friends and I were hanging out looking, laughing, and making fun of stupid peoples myspace pages. All of a sudden, we were all alramed by a blood curdling scream coming from the next room. We all sat, motionless as we awaited what would happen next. The thoughts running through our minds were only about if we were going to survive, if we were going to be tortured, if we were going to ever see each other again, if we were ever going to see our families again, if we were ever going to be able to laugh at stupid people on myspace again. Then one of the girls came galloping into the room, as fast as her short, stubby legs would carry her chubby body. She stood, motionless, in the doorway. We all stared at her not knowing what to do or say, or expecting her head to fall off infront of us because of some murderer that got her when she was alone, all by herself, in the next room, which was dark, disturbingly dark, and scarily quiet. There is plenty of dark funiture in the room and a non-squeaking, unlocked door that he could have walked through and then hid. As our friend struggled for words, we all watched, jaws to the floor, as she appeared to be suffocating from shock. After about seven hours of this, she finally snapped out of it and exclaimed to us, in her annoying, ear piercing voice that she saw someone standing in the front lawn, look at her, and then run across the lawn and into the extremely dense forest of dark trees located in the back yard. Everyone started screaming and running ferociously around the house, banging into everything, breaking all of the items in the house and a couple bones, from the momentum of our bodies running into each other during our panic. After a few hours of this chaos, we came to the realization that we needed to teach this peeper a lesson, we loaded up on supplies. We ended up with blinding light flashlights, five or six sniper gus and about one thousand two hundred and fifty seven bullets, thats just an estimation, two taser guns, and five cans of sure guard spray. We found the man and skinned him good, killing him within about ten hours. Research Papers on One Scary NightThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsThe Hockey GameThe Spring and AutumnHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayTrailblazing by Eric AndersonUnreasonable Searches and Seizures19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyMind TravelCapital Punishment

Analyze compare and contrast two books Research Paper

Analyze compare and contrast two books - Research Paper Example John who is Ann’s mother and the Red Girl. Anne is the main character who dominates the whole novel and the story is told in her own subjective voice. The author depicts Anne as an arrogant and complex being who struggles to survive and define her own separate world from that of her mother. Anne is seen to develop as a character as she struggles with the fear of separation from her mother, becomes an expert in marbles and eventually develops hatred and anger as she rebels against her mother’s attempts to define her world (Kincaid 32). Mrs. John’s character is developed and defined by Ann through her subjective narration. She is initially portrayed as a person who is strong, wonderful, kind and full of knowledge about the societal norms and values. Anne develops bitterness and hatred towards Mrs. John when she repeatedly tells her that they are two separate beings. In addition to this, Anne points to her mother’s sexual relationship with her husband as the reasons for her alienation and neglect. The Red Girl on the other hand is developed as a character that represents the outside world and does not have to adhere to the societal norms and values. The Red Girl represents the new world which Anne dreams of creating and she becomes a key figure in Anne’s development as a character by offering her a sense of self. The major characters in The portrait of a young artist as a young man by James Joyce includes: Stephen Dedalus, Simon Dedalus, Emma Clery, Cranly and Charles Stewart Parnell. Stephen Dedalus, the main character in the novel, is developed as a highly sensitive individual. He has the advantage of a quality education but is portrayed to be living in isolation and deprivation amidst the oppressive colonial nationality, highly developed social immorality and extremist family and religious values. Just like Anne in Annie John by Jamaica Kincaid, Stephen feels trapped and seeks escape by abandoning the restrictive societal norm s and living freely as an artist. As a character, Stephen undergoes growth, development and transformation as the story progresses. His transformations occurs in various stages starting in his first year in college where he demonstrates that he is an intellectual person with his understanding of societal systems and begins to create a different perception of his environment (Joyce 32). Another transformation occurs when Stephen engages in sexual intercourse with the prostitute in Dublin which transforms his from innocence to promiscuity according to the societal values. The third transformation was motivated by Father Arnall’s speech regarding the concept of death and hell which led to his conversion from a sinner to a Catholic. His final transformation indicates his maturity as a conscious individual when he changes his obsession from religion and focuses on the appreciation of art and beauty. Thematic analysis Themes refer to the major topic or subject in a piece of literat ure. The themes in Annie John by Jamaica Kincaid include the relationships between mother and daughter, colonization and the impact of colonial education and the various gender relations in the society. The main theme is the relationship between mother and child where Kincaid develops the complex relationship between Anne and her mother in her childhood and adolescence. As a result of the closeness of their relationship, Anne encounters several challenges and tension as she

NATIONAL REPUBLICAN-WHIG INTELLIGENCER(ANDREW JACKSON) Essay

NATIONAL REPUBLICAN-WHIG INTELLIGENCER(ANDREW JACKSON) - Essay Example Hailed as a manipulative politician, in his eight years as President of USA he achieved the impossible, not always turned out to be good for a section of the people. He made the best use of the ‘divide and rule policy’ so secure his power and chair. From an ordinary soldier to reach the office of the President was a big leap and hold on to it for two terms was a bigger achievement. For a practicing politician, the powerful chair is more important than the welfare of the ‘chair-less powers’ (people) The important tool with the people to check the political ascendancy of a person or a party, is the need to know how to apply brakes. This can be done by not electing the party in power for the second term. Andrew Jackson successfully met the challenges posed by his rival politicians. Nevertheless, he was the protector of popular democracy and individual liberty. This tough President deserved the nickname â€Å"Old Hickory.† His portrait on the United States twenty-dollar bill is the constant reminder to his popularity. Populism, once in a while, is understandable for a political figure, but the repeated populist measures will not be for the good of the Nation. In the first flush of enthusiasm Jackson invited the poor people on the occasion of the inaugural ball during the 1829 presidential inauguration, in their homemade clothes. This was a magnanimous gesture that nearly went beyond the controlling capacity of the security guards at the White House. He converted political problems into opportunities. When the scandal related to Senator John Eaton, his trusted friend, blew out of proportion and the Cabinet Ministers resigned, it was a God-sent opportunity for him to reshuffle the Cabinet and appoint Officers who were loyal to him. Some of his attempted socio-political reforms crossed the borders of fantasy. The designs of destiny worked in his favor and in 1830 the Indian Removal Act was passed by his administration by a singe vote. That decided the fate of

Outline Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Outline - Assignment Example Of course, by illegally downloading music, the artist, whose song is downloaded, receives no remuneration for his or her work The research paper will be focused on pointing out the main differences and similarities among the Canadian and American legislative system in the music download domain, but it will also try to explain why Canada has the highest rate of illegal MP3 downloads in the world. The author will analyze the legislative acts that regulate the copyright protection in Canada and will point out their weak points, those that make illegal music downloading possible and, somehow, legal. Examples of law cases based on illegal MP3 download will be produced and analyzed. The research paper will be finalized with several suggestions on how this situation might be improved in such a way that Canada is no longer the â€Å"winner† of the top of the countries with the highest level of piracy in music downloads. The author will base his researches on important legislative acts, opinions of famous authors and statistical

Speech Males And Females Communication Differences English Language Essay

Speech Males And Females Communication Differences English Language Essay Introduction: The differences in linguistic styles between males and females have exercised linguistic researchers for decades (e.g. Trudgill 1972; Lakoff 1975; Labov 1990; Coates 1998). It has been argued for some time that some consistent differences exist in speech, Holmes (1993). Although the interpretation of such differences remains somewhat elusive. Most previous work has investigated apparent phonological and pragmatic differences between male and female language use in speech (e.g. Trudgill 1972; Key 1975; Holmes 1990; Labov 1990; Eckert 1997). Several statistical phenomena have emerged that appear to be fairly stable across a variety of contexts. For example, females seem to talk more about relationships than do males (Aries Johnson 1983; Tannen 1990) and use more compliments and apologies (Holmes 1988; Holmes 1989) and facilitative tag questions (Holmes 1984). Holmes (1993) has suggested that these and other phenomena might be generalized to a number of universals including that females are more attentive to the affective function of conversation and more prone to use linguistic devices that solidify relationships. However, interpretation of the underlying linguistic phenomena, particularly as regards their specific communicative functions, is the subject of considerable controversy (Bergvall et al 1996). For example, it has been argued (Cameron et al 1988) that the use of facilitative tag questions by women might be more plausibly interpreted as signs of conversational control than as signs of subordination, as had been previously contended (Lakoff 1975). Nevertheless, broadly speaking, the differences between female and male language use appear to be centered about the interaction between the linguistic actor and his or her linguistic context. Are gender issues just women issues? No, but it is understandable that many people think so. This is because in most societies women are subordinated to men. And they are thought to be inferior to men. Many women do not accept this, and therefore they challenge the way their culture and society ascribes them an inferior position and an inferior role. That means, it often tends to be women who raise the issue of gender. But gender refers just as much to the position and role of men in society. Are gender differences in communication patterns related to power? When people are strangers, they expect less competence from women than from men. But if women are known to have prior experience or expertise related to the task, or if women are assigned leadership roles, then women show greatly increased verbal behaviors in mixed-sex groups. Educated professionals who have high social status were less likely to use powerless language, regardless of gender. Thus, differences are linked to power, and are context-specific. Differences are socially created and therefore may be socially altered. Studies have found that talking time is related both to gender (because men spend more time talking than women) and to organizational power (because the more powerful spend more time talking than the less powerful). Who Talks More, Men or Women?    A common cultural stereotype describes women as being talkative, always speaking and expressing their feelings. Well, this is probably true; however, do women do it more than men? No! In fact an experiment designed to measure the amount of speech produced suggested that men are more prone to use up more talking time than women. An experiment b y Marjorie Swacker entailed using three pictures by a fifteenth century Flemish artist, Albrecht Durer which were presented to men and women separately. They were told to take as much time as they wanted to describe the pictures. The average time for males: 13.0 minutes, and the average time for women 3.17 minutes. Why is this?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sociolinguists try to make the connection between our society and our language in a way that suggests that women talk less because it has not always been as culturally acceptable as it has been for men. Men have tended to take on a more dominant role not only in the household, but in the business world. This ever-changing concept is becoming less applicable in our society, however, the trend is still prominent in some societies across the world. It is more acceptable for a man to be talkative, carry on long conversation, or a give a long wordy speech, however it is less acceptable for a women to do so. It has been more of a historical trend for men have more rights to talk. However , it is common for men to be more silent in situations that require them to express emotion. Since childhood, they have been told to keep their cool and remain calm, be a man. Literature Review The different sources that Ive read and used in the literature review presented different points of view and analysis for the subjects by reliable writers and authorities in this issue. All the sources that were used assume that there is a real difference in communication between males and females, and they agreed that there were many misunderstandings or misinterpretations in communication between genders. However, each article and source presented its own examination of the miscommunication, and they proposed different ways by which to investigate this social issue. According to an article entitled Differences in Gender Communication (2005) there is another form of differences between genders. Communication can be verbal, non verbal, or written because people can communicate also using the mail system, the written way is added to the interpersonal communication in addition of course to the verbal and non verbal ways. From reading this article, it was clear that gender differences in communication existed also in the written way because we can determine the gender of a person just by reading its written words. The differences that exist between genders and the reason why women cant be more like a man play an important role in the creation of misunderstanding in communication. Also differences present the essential causes that lead to a disagreement in communication between the two genders. There are some factors that contribute to the instinctive differences that exist between genders; for instance, there are biological ones, also there is a kind of competitiveness that exists between men and women. In addition, the cultural part enters also into consideration. Another point stated by Hill (2002) is that, there are many styles of communication. These styles are the result of many factors where were from, how and where we were brought up, our educational background, our age, and it also can depend on our gender (p. 87). In communication, generally men and women have special manners and styles of speaking also a specific subject, Coates (1986, p 23). Many studies have been done to clarify the difference in communication between men and women. According to Canaray and Dindia (2006): Researchers typically report that men are more likely to emerge as leaders, to be directive and hierarchical, to dominate in groups by talking more and interrupting more. In contrast, women are found to be more expressive, supportive, facilitative, egalitarian, and cooperative than men, and to focus more on relationships and share more personally with others From this description of the difference between men and women at a level of behaviors, it was clear that women convey their ideas and feelings and cooperate more than men who want to be the leaders and to direct. In addition, the difference between genders in communication causes misunderstanding and leads to conflicts. For example, women might disclose their feelings and the problems that they are facing, but men think that women need help, so they start giving advice and trying to help. However, women behave like that in order to get closer to others not to get solutions (Gray, 1992, p 96). Another important point argued in the research of Tanner (2002) is the reason why difference exists in communication between genders. It is said that these differences should not exist because men and women might belong to the same environment as being neighbors or brothers and sisters, yet the difference is present even if they have a similar background. The dissimilarity rises from the games that boys and girls play since their childhood, and the groups they form. For example, boys form a big group and one is the leader; however, girls tend to form small groups and they disclose their feelings and their opinions (Tanner, 2002). Torppa claims that women and men sometimes perceive the same messages to have different meanings (2002, p112). That is due to the difference in the way of interpreting messages by the two genders. In fact, women are more likely to depend on others. In other words, women want to establish an emotional and passionate interdependence with men. Moreover, women try to satisfy the others as much as possible to make everyone satisfied, merry and happy whereas men more often stick to their independence and try to keep it intact whatever the situation may be. Besides, the spirit of competition inside them let these ones think of themselves more than any other one. Nevertheless, the misunderstandings between these two genders are mostly due to a difference in the way each one expresses oneself. Many examples of the normal life analysed by Torppa revealed that misunderstandings can be caused by a distortion in the manner people want to manifest their emotions and feelings to the other sex: wome n tend more to use words while men prefer generally to show them with acts. The possible way for coping with miscommunication is to try to be aware of the differences that exist with the other sex as well as to figure out what is the point of view or the angle from which the other sees the situation. Lakoff (1975) pioneering work suggested that womens speech typically displayed a range of features, such as tag questions, which marked it as inferior and weak. Thus, she argued that the type of subordinate speech learned by a young girl will later be an excuse others use to keep her in a demeaning position, to refuse to treat her seriously as a human being (1975, p.5). As what was said before, the difference of communication between men and women can trigger some misunderstandings, and in order to overcome this problem men and women should deal with each other as if they are from different cultures. They should not misinterpret words and body language, and try to understand what the other wants to convey. Moreover, they have to clarify and make sure that they understand the other by asking questions and doing perception checking (Lathrop, 2006). Conclusion The differences between genders in communication exist, not only in the verbal way but also in the non-verbal one was proved true. Moreover, these differences in communication are mostly due to culture, education and biologic origin. The consequences of these differences in communication which is misunderstandings that also proved right. However, new ideas also found in such as the fact that a significant number of men are concerned about this issue and have feelings of disappointment when facing misunderstandings with the other sex. No matter what communication style there is both men and women will communicate in different ways. Men will take the approach of instrumental communication style where they want the answer right away and establish their hierarchy. Women, on the other hand, will be more of an expressive style of communication as they will be able to confide to others and are more sensitive to issues than men and they will be able to build, maintain, and strengthen their relationship.

Creatine Monohydrate Essay -- Supplements Chemistry Creatine Essays

Creatine Monohydrate Creatine monohydrate is a body building supplement. Many athletes and trainers use it to enhance athletic performance. College athletics are an advocate for creatine when it comes to exercising and strength conditioning, But what is creatine? Creatine is a naturally occurring metabolite found in red muscle tissue. It is a powerful ergogenic aid that plays an important role in energizing muscle. Creatine increases the body's ability to do work. It is high powered and generates the muscles ultimate energy source - ATP (adenosine triphosphate)- ATP produces the contractions of a muscle's proteins. When muscles are performing work ATP is being broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and energy is given off. The ATP being used usually lasts 10 - 15 seconds. After that the muscle depends on creatine phosphate to restock the ATP. Creatine acts as a reserve for the ATP. Therefore increased amounts of creatine will allow the body to supply ATP at a faster rate. Which, in turn allows an individual to workout longer and maintain a high level of strength. With creatine as a supple)-nent the body is exposed 4 grams of creatine per kilogram. Red meats give 1 gram of creatine per large serving. These increased amounts of creatine slow the possibility of fatigue. Creatine promotes the synthesis of protein, which promotes muscle growth. The loading phase consists of 5 grams 4 - 6 times a day for the first 5 to 7 days. 'f his should be accompanied by at least I hour of exercise. The load should then be reduced after a week to no more than IO grams per day. This is what most of the stores that sell the creatine will tell vou because there aim is to sell the product. Since the product has been... ...ur best bet because it has been proved that loading is not necessary. While creatine is being taken it is necessary that the individual remains hydrated during the early cycles extra water is taken into the cells when creatine enters and this causes minor water retention- This water retention has been related to cramps and heat intolerance. The majority of the advocates for creatine didn't report any side effects. In most instances when the question was raised, the articles said, "Yes, it's safe. No negative side effects noted in research with recommended levels of supplement." All of these people were involved with sales and advertisement of the product also. An article on a review of creatine was the most effective in providing insight on creatine because it didn't have anything to do with promotions of it. Creatine is safe, it is pure and it works!

An Analysis of the Geography of Witchcraft

Benjamin C. Ray wrote â€Å"The Geography of Witchcraft Accusation in 1692 Salam Village† in order to imply that geographic analysis of the witchcraft accusation, economic, religious as well as social status shows there was no significant east-west division within Salam Village. In the article, Ray points out that the map included in Salam Possessed is not only interpretive but also incomplete. He states that there was an inconsistency in giving a numerical count of accusers and accused in the village. Moreover, he questions about the setting of the demarcation line at the center of the map. Ray also offers a revised map of the accusation due to incorrect number of accuser and accused and intended exclusion of eight afflicted girls and the five villagers. From the revised map, Ray reveals that there is no significant division. Conversely, Boyer and Nissenbaum stated that inclusion of the eight afflicted girls would not significantly change the geographic pattern because they were not â€Å"decisive shapers† and also six of eight were not living in the parents’ house during the witchcraft outbreak. Although Boyer and Nissenbaum provided a wide range of information related to the accusation, they failed to present data as given in sources and convincing explanations. Apparently, they intended to show the division in the Village by looking at the map. However, Ray not only indicates errors contained in the map but also reveals the different possible interpretation which can be drawn conclusion from the revised map. I believe the use of the map for illustrating the east-west division of the witchcraft accusation in inappropriate. for omission of accusers and location of the demarcation line, and Boyer and Nissenbaum introduced idea of geographic distribution in the patterns of witchcraft accusation in the first chapter of Salem Possessed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Graduate Study

Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Graduate Study Distance learning can be very convenient, but what about when it comes to graduate school? What are the online education advantages and disadvantages when it comes to getting a master or doctorate degree online? Is it better to attend graduate school traditionally? Does the online experience take away from your ability to gain valuable hands-on experience or networking experience? Online education is more common than ever. In fact, many educators and policymakers view online education as the wave of the future. There are also plenty of technology advancements, as well as hybrid in-person  and online programs, that allow students to learn in a hands-on way. Is an online graduate degree program right for you? Consider the pros and cons of an online graduate program before you choose one. Advantages Accessibility: Attend online classes from anywhere. This is great because many graduate school students hold down full-time jobs in addition to studying. Not having to rush to class on a busy workday or a relaxing weekend day can be a perk.Flexibility: Work on classwork when it makes sense for you, as you are not tied to a class schedule  in most cases.Interpersonal Breadth: Your peers will include students all over the country and even the world. This is also a great advantage for networking purposes.Cost: An online education does not require that you relocate to a new place or that you stop working full time.  Documentation: Documents, transcripts, live discussions, and training materials are all archived and recorded so that they can be retrieved via mail, e-mail or the schools website for reading, downloading and printing at any time.  Access: Instructors are available, respond quickly through email and generally are prepared to work with diverse students with a range of lifestyles and needs. Disadvantages   Employment:  If you attend an institution that is entirely online, you may find that you have to discuss the validity of your degree. Some people may not view a completely online program as being as authentic as a traditional or hybrid program. Information about the schools accreditation can convince employers of the programs validity.Communications: Most of your communication will be through email, which may not be the most effective method if you or the professor are better in person. You might miss the sound of an instructor or peers voice if there are no audio sessions.Courses: Not all courses of study are easily available online. If youre interested in a more unusual field, you may have difficulty finding a source for a complete online education.In-person responsibilities:  Hybrid programs in which you attend some classes in person, or do some projects in person, are valuable but the time needed to commute to school or participate in them can detract from work or family resp onsibilities.

Estimate the importance of Federalism in fourth century Greece Essays

Estimate the importance of Federalism in fourth century Greece Essays Estimate the importance of Federalism in fourth century Greece Essay Estimate the importance of Federalism in fourth century Greece Essay Essay Topic: History The Peloponnesian War According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica1 federalism is a mode of political organisation that unites independent states within a larger political framework while still allowing each state to maintain its own political integrity. While the distribution of power between states and the federal authority will vary from system to system, all federal systems preserve the ability of state governments to decide matters of local importance without interference from the federal superstructure. Federalism is a way of achieving unity without force. After Athens was defeated by Sparta in 404BC, Sparta and its allies gathered together to decide the fate of Athens. Corinth and Thebes urged for the complete destruction of the city and for all Athenians to be sold into slavery. Athens enemies wanted to make sure that Athens did not return as a major power in Greece. However, Sparta decided that because of Athens past service to Greece and the Greek city states in the Persian Wars, to be lenient and ordered that the Athenian city walls and walls protecting the Piraeus were to be destroyed and for Athens to lose all its foreign possessions2. They also ordered that the Athenian navy was to be reduced to just twelve triremes and Athens had to become an ally to Sparta and pledge to follow Spartan leadership. From all of this two new concepts were to arise in fourth century Greece. Firstly, the concept of a common peace was to arise, which was the peace between all Greek States and secondly the concept of federalism, which was the formati on of various leagues and alliances for mutual protection. After the surrender of Athens, Sparta became the undisputed major power among the Greek city states. Stripped of her empire and navy, Athens looked to the establishment of leagues to ensure its survival and hopes of becoming a major power again, as well as to ensure the common peace. But it wasnt going to be easy for Athens because it had become a city under the political control of its more powerful neighbour Sparta and a period of Spartan Hegemony was to follow. According to Thomas. R. Martin, Ancient Greece, in Athens the Spartan general, Lysander, who defeated the city, pulled down the democratic government and established an oligarchy, this caused many members of the democratic factions to flee the city and raise armies in Corinth and Thebes. In the period of Spartan Hegemony we see Sparta trying to establish an empire of her own. Shortly after the defeat of Athens, Sparta entered into an alliance with Cyrus, who claimed the Persian throne against his brother, Artaxerxes the second, who had also claimed the throne. Under the leadership of Sparta, Cyrus managed to make it all the way to the centre of Mesopotamia and the capital itself. But Cyrus was killed leaving the Spartans trapped in hostile territory with no means of escape; her only escape route was to make defensive alliances with the Greek city states of Asia Minor which it did3. In these defensive alliances we see Sparta trying to ensure the common peace and we also to a small extent see the unification of some of the Greek states. Even though the alliances were defensive and for Spartas benefit, a hint of federalism does exist here. The period of Spartan Hegemony was followed by the Corinthian War from 395 to 386BC. Federalism is seen here in the alliance of Corinth, Argos, Thebes and Athens against Sparta. Angered by Spartas tyrannical overlordship in Greece after the Peloponnesian war and the defeat of Athens, several Greek states took advantage of Spartas involvement in the war with Persia to challenge Spartan supremacy4. With Persian aid from Artaxerxes the second, Athens was able to build a fleet, refortify her port, and eventually recover the islands of Lemnos, Scyros and Imbros. Unable to fight a war on all fronts, Sparta soon withdrew her forces from Asia Minor and Sparta began negotiations with Persia to bring about peace and to halt the Persian support of the rebellious Greek city states. Sparta with the help of a Spartan agent in Persia, Antalcidas, persuaded Artaxerxes to agree to the so called Kings Peace, or Peace of Antalcidas, but the terms were those of the Persian King and not that of Spartas5. Persia proposed that Cyprus and the Greek city states in Asia Minor were to be returned to Persia, while the Athenians were forced to give up their conquests except Lemnos, Imbros and Scryos. The Persians also proposed that the Greek city states except those in Asia Minor were to be independent thus eliminating combinations such as the Theban dominated Boeotian league, which had also fought against Sparta. Sparta accepted the terms of the treaty but interpreted its terms of peace as an excuse to justify interference in the Greek city states. Sparta could use the terms of the treaty as an excuse to dismantle enemies whose organisation could be seen as a violation of peace in Greece6. The Kings peace also gave Sparta space to expand its actions and in 383BC Sparta attacked Olynthus. However, on passing by Thebes the Spartan army was invited into the city by a group of pro-Spartan citizens. The Spartan commander, Phoebidas took advantage of the situation and proceeded to seize the citadel of Thebes. This action was to create a violent hatred to Sparta in the Greek world. In turn the Athenians were to ally themselves with the Thebans and the establishment of the Athenian Naval Confederacy in 378BC occurs7. Like Athens alliance during the Corinthian war this was also an act of federalism. The establishment of the Athenian naval confederacy may have been due to the fear of Spartan revenge after the Athenian support for Thebes and the part it played in the liberation of Thebes citadel, but it is probably more likely that Athens simply used the anti-Spartan attitude in the hope to gain a foothold on which to restore her once formidable empire. With the establishment of the Athenian naval confederacy Athens was careful to guarantee that the alliance would not turn into a second Delian league that was completely dominated by Athens. In the naval confederacy combined military actions of Athens and its allies could only be approved by the Athenian peoples court after the majority of a federal diet, of which Athens was no member, was in favour. Another difference between the Delian league and the new Athenian naval confederacy was that Athens did not have permission to establish cleruchies, or loose soldiers on the territory of its allies. Athens could also not demand tributes, the necessary contributions were completely voluntary. These measures made the Athenian naval confederacy from the beginning not suited as an instrument for new Athenian imperialism8. For many of the Greek states there was no rush to join the Athenian naval confederacy, only when the confederacy showed its effectiveness by defeating Sparta at sea during the battle of Naxos in 376BC did the alliance quickly gain members9. At first most cities were happy with their membership of the confederacy, but soon Athens showed its real intentions. Athens also broke one of her promises by installing a garrison on the island of Cephalleia. The justification of the alliance, at first a democratic freedom fight against Sparta the oppressor, seemed to have lost its justification. Thebes also had become power hungry and it reclaimed its leadership over Boetia by reviving the Boetian league10. Thebes ambitions did not stop there and a war followed ending in 371BC with a Spartan defeat at Leuctra. Up until then the Spartan army was seen as almost invincible. The Theban victory was due to the tactical genius of Epaminodas. He realised that the problem or weakness of the Spartan phalanx was that it had always tended to curl to the right, as the hoplites instinctively moved to the right to gain more protection from the shield of the hoplite beside them. So Epaminodas introduced the sloping phalanx11 which was deeper at the left wing. The result was a classic encirclement of the enemy once the stronger left wing had defeated the weaker right wing of the enemy. After the battle of Leuctra a period of Theban Hegemony was to come. It is also important to note that the Athenian naval confederacy was still intact after the Spartan defeat. One of the Theban Hegemonys most permanent legacies according to V. Ehrenberg, The Greek State, was the export of the federal principle and that the establishment of the Arcadian league is concrete evidence of the way Thebes in her expansion in the Aegean, capitalized on Athenian unpopularity by stealing Athens allies and institutions12. Although Theban Hegemony was to follow, Athens still made a bid for diplomatic leadership to fill the vacuum left by Spartas fall. It was not so much an attempt to incorporate Spartas allies into the naval confederacy by Athens but to inherit the hegemony of the Peloponnese, which Thebes already had. Thebes found it convenient, as we see in the establishment of the Arcadian league, to encourage federalism13. The Thebans encouraged the federation of Arcadia in the hope that the Arcadian league would form a suitable diplomatic and strategic implement. In spite of Spartan wishes, in the latter Thebes was successful, although the league did prove to be r ather too independent in spirit for Thebes liking. As federalism was a way of achieving unity without force Thebes saw herself as the leader of a united Hellas, as most probably Sparta and Athens did. The establishment of Theban military supremacy was a source of fear to both Athens and Sparta, and so it seemed the logical move for the two states to combine in their opposition to Thebes14. By 369BC the Athenians and Spartans were in the field as allies, not dividing up their respective spheres by land and sea but each holding supreme command in turn. However, Spartas last hope to restore its power ended with the great battle of Mantinea in 362BC. Thebes had once again managed to defeat the Spartan phalanx, but this time it had cost them the death of their most influential leader, Epaminodas15. It seems evident that none of the three great states could gain leadership again let alone leadership of a united Hellas, Sparta was completely broken and defeated, Athens had problems and discontent within her confederacy and Thebes was in general hated and had lost her most influential leader. According to Sir Franck Adcock and D.J. Mosley, Diplomacy in Ancient Greece, what also became clear was that the principal collection of independent cities had to be replaced by other forms of government. It seemed that the history of Greece was to repeat itself, everyone attacking each other in a bid to become the most powerful city. The result was that several times confederations were formed by cities who felt threatened, as we have seen to a certain extent. In the early 350s BC Thebes was completely losing her power and an argument with her neighbouring city, Phocis, resulted in a Sacred War, in which Thebes was hit hard. Phocis seized the Delphi temple treasures, hired mercenaries and fought for its existence. The war was only ended by the intervention of Philip of Macedon in 346 BC16. Soon the disintegration of the Boetian league increased and Theban Hegemony was completely over. The Athenians also gave over their league and Greece had once again become a nation of independent non-allied states. In less than two decades, those city states would disappear forever as political units, to be replaced by a kingdom under Macedonian rule and Philip II. Philips establishment of the Corinthian League was to be the building of the bridge that led to the federal state17. We can conclude that fourth century Greece is a period littered with alliances. There is a great deal of federalism in the fourth century BC and its importance is that it is a kind of alternative to an extent to imperialism, it is a way of achieving peace without force. Leagues and alliances were all attempts to ensure a common peace with one of a possible three candidates wanting to be at the helm of it all to an extent. But neither Sparta, Thebes or Athens was to lead Greece as a federal state and achieve unity as Macedon and Rome later did. The leagues were an offensive as well as a defensive alliance, as seen in the Athenian naval confederacy. In answer to the question I believe that federalism did play an important role in the fourth century and it paved a way for a common peace under Macedonian rule with Philip and later with Alexander the Great, who expressed unity at its highest level by incorporating Persians in administrative roles in his vast empire which stretched from Gr eece to India.

PERSONAL ETHICS ACTION PLAN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

PERSONAL ETHICS ACTION PLAN - Essay Example Leadership is taking ownership and responsibility for tasks. Service is caring and helping. Character is what builds when all these three work in cohesion. Section Four: The Most Pressing Ethical Issues for Organizations (Employee Rights & Discrimination) (3 pages) The most pressing ethical issues for organizations today are probably employee rights and discrimination, which will be examined here. Obviously, in today’s job market there are a lot of employee rights being violated and discrimination which is being conducted indiscriminately and, unfortunately, frequently throughout the average workplace. He who wakes up early will surely find his â€Å"bread,† or daily living, according to Holy Scriptures. However, it is the government relying on what Gustavo Gutierrez (1999) termed the â€Å"preferential option for the poor† to take shape is what is most frustrating. The government doesn’t seem to know what to do about unemployment, and frankly neither do p oliticians of either major party. It is very frustrating. The amount of good, middle-class paying jobs have significantly been reduced, and quite a number of jobs which are boosting employment statistics include many unskilled or low-skill jobs such as jobs at McDonald’s (the fast food chain), and other such forms of employment. This was just some background to demonstrate what is happening in our economy. Basically the rich are getting richer—remember the tax cuts for the top 3 or 4 percent of the wealthiest people in the U.S. who own a majority of the nation’s wealth? And obviously, the poor are getting poorer. One in seven Americans is living below the poverty line. Now, for someone to have to live below the federal poverty line, basically you have to make a certain lesser amount than what would generally be considered middle-class. Many college students have had to go back to live with their parents—in some cases, even after they have gone to grad sch ool and maybe have gotten married†¦with children. Thirty million Americans are currently on some form of government TANF aid like food stamps. When the food runs out, what will people do? They might riot. Cities could become desolate, Chicago could become Detroit†¦it is all a domino effect just waiting to happen. The cities would become breeding grounds for violence. Basically, the fact that the average American worker has little or no say in his or her paycheck, or interest in his or her work, is severely limiting the potential of what this nation could truly do—if the Administration puts people to work, for example, in a Great Depression era-style public works program like the WPA, employing people from all walks of life. Something must be done now, as in—immediately! People need jobs and the fact that there are gaps on some peoples’ resumes are now grounds for discriminating against hiring people. Peoples’ work histories do not fit neatly int o bubbles. Many people go through periods in their lives where they were perhaps living at home with their parents, and were perhaps going to school and were not employed—even if it’s just for one summer. The solution is, there are no easy solutions to employee rights and discrimination but we as a country must come together and solve these problems or they will continue to worsen. Basically, what has to

PRoject Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

PRoject - Research Paper Example Its main components are feldspar and quartz, even though, there are small amounts of amphiboles, mica, and numerous other elements. Due to the varying composition of the granite rock, it comes in various shades and colors such as white, pink, red and gray. Mable, on the other hand, is the metamorphic rock that will be formed when limestone is exposed to the pressure and heat of the metamorphism. Its main component is calcium calcite and normally can have other minerals such as quartz, clay minerals, graphite, iron oxide, pyrite, and micas. Under the intense condition of metamorphosis, the calcite components of the limestone rejoin each other and form larger calcite crystals. Nigeria has its unique culture that is also in cooperated into their business world. One is likely to find self spending in the first two hours of a first conversation just exchanging pleasantries and talking about matters of family and health. To them, these matters are of great importance. One might find himself trying to rush things at this stage. Something that is worth noting is that Nigerians often work as a team and closed door meetings are bound to be frequently interrupted by phone calls, emails, and errands. Some scholars have argued that the law of supply and demand is enough to shape the business world in any region, however, others argue that politics is very vital for business in any region of the world. However what is now known to be true is that lots of political factors determine which direction the economy swings. The ruling government in Nigeria often introduces new rules and regulations or eliminate old ones that determine how business transactions in the country are to be countries out. By this, may include; waivers, import promotion decrees, tariffs, import duties and industrial promotion policies. It can is best illustrated by the 2004 import waiver of Dangote Industries that enabled the firm to